By Dr Ross Mahoney

Editorial note: This article appears on the author’s website. It has been reproduced here with permission.

D-Day, the Allied invasion of Europe in Normandy on 6 June 1944, has left an indelible mark on our cultural memory, as illustrated by the 2026 US release of the film Pressure. This film tells the story of the decision to launch the invasion from the perspective of General Dwight Eisenhower’s Chief Meteorological Officer, Group Captain James Stagg of the Royal Air Force (RAF). Australia’s role in the invasion of Europe was small compared with those of the main participants, the United Kingdom, Canada, and the United States; however, it was nonetheless significant. On 6 June, Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) units, in particular, served with the RAF’s 2nd Tactical Air Force, Bomber Command, and Coastal Command. However, the RAAF’s contribution to the war in the northern hemisphere was not limited to Northwest Europe.

From 1940 onwards, the RAAF had deployed units to the Middle East and North Africa. For example, in mid-1940, No. 3 Squadron, one of 12 pre-war permanent RAAF squadrons, was deployed to the Middle East to support the 2^nd Australian Imperial Force. By June 1944, six RAAF units were deployed around the Mediterranean and in addition to No. 3 Squadron, the squadrons deployed included five Article XV Squadrons (Nos. 450, 451, 454, 458 and 459). Additionally, No. 462 Squadron had operated in the Mediterranean as a heavy bomber unit until it was converted to No. 614 Squadron RAF at the end of February 1944. Article XV Squadrons were those units raised and manned by graduates of the British Commonwealth Air Training Scheme. The RAAF raised 17 Article XV Squadrons during the Second World War, and the majority of these served under British command at various points.

Given the RAAF’s contribution to the broader Mediterranean during the Second World War, it is worth noting that while Australian contributions to D-Day were important, operations in the latter theatre continued. Indeed, operations at the tactical level on 6 June were very much business as usual despite the momentous events in Normandy. Moreover, and often overlooked, is the fact that on 5 June, the Allies took Rome, Italy’s capital. This came in the aftermath of the landings at Anzio (Operation ANVIL) and the breaking of the Gustav Line around Cassino (Operation DIADEM). In Italy, the period after the taking of Rome was characterised by operations to advance to the Gothic Line.

RAAF units deployed in the Mediterranean in 1944 came under the overall command of the Mediterranean Allied Air Force (MAAF), formed in December 1943 and commanded by Lieutenant-General Ira Eaker of the United States Army Air Forces. The MAAF comprised several major commands: the Mediterranean Allied Strategic Air Force, the Mediterranean Tactical Air Force (MATAF), the Mediterranean Allied Coastal Air Force (MACAF), RAF Middle East Command, the Mediterranean Allied Photographic Wing, and, from June 1944, the Balkan Air Force. Although no RAAF unit was assigned to the Balkan Air Force, at least 150 Australians served within its ranks.[1] Indeed, a sizeable number were assigned to No 148 Squadron RAF, which flew the Handley Page Halifax in the special duties’ role.[2] Additionally, for example, in 1944, there were ‘over 100 Australian individuals scattered among the various units of MACAF.[3]

Of the six RAAF squadrons in the Mediterranean, three operated as part of MATAF – Nos. 3, 450, and 451. Each undertook roles associated with fighter and tactical air operations in Italy, including fighter sweeps and direct air support to ground forces. Nos. 3 and 450 Squadron were part of No. 239 Wing. This Wing had been temporarily assigned to the US XII Air Support Command (ASC) until 6 June. However, on 6 June, control of Nos. 239 and 244 (which had also been attached to XII ASC) Wing reverted to the RAF’s Desert Air Force (DAF), commanded by Air Vice-Marshal William Dickson.[4] At the same time, DAF assumed responsibility for air operations on the fronts of the British Eighth Army and V Corps.[5] While key changes took place in the command and control of Nos. 3 and 450 Squadron, the day-to-day operations of the units remained largely unchanged. No. 3 Squadron was equipped with the Curtiss Kittyhawk IV and commanded by Squadron Leader R.H. Bayly. On 6 June, No. 3 Squadron was operating out of San Angelo and undertook four operations totalling 24 sorties.[6] Three of them were described as ‘armed recce’ operations, while one was to bomb motor transport in the Rocca Sinibalda area specifically. Total claims for the day were 12 motor transport and 2 tanks. Interestingly, the first operations failed to hit anything, but on the way back to San Angelo, they spotted 40 tanks and could not attack them for lack of bombs.[7] No. 450 Squadron, also equipped with the Curtiss Kittyhawk IV and flying out of San Angelo, undertook three operations and 24 sorties on 6 June.[8]

For No. 451 Squadron, operations were similar to those of Nos. 3 and 450 Squadron. However, the key difference was in the control of No. 451 Squadron. Originally raised in early 1941, No. 451 Squadron had served in North Africa and Syria and eventually re-equipped with the Supermarine Spitfire MkIX in early 1944. In April, they became part of No. 251 Wing RAF, which was attached to the US 87^th Fighter Wing of XII ASC, though administratively under the command of DAF. No. 251 Wing served within the 87^th Wing alongside another RAF wing, No. 322, also equipped with the Spitfire. Both ‘experienced’ wings ‘transferred specially for the task from the Middle East.’[9]  Primarily, the 87^th Wing was tasked with ‘the provision of escort to the Mitchells and Marauders of the 42^nd and 57^th Wings, and the disruption and destruction of enemy communications and supplies.’[10] Eighty-seven Wings’ brief also included ‘ground support missions’ and ‘anti-shipping strikes.’[11] As the RAF Air Historical Branch (AHB) narrative noted, between 5 and 15 June, a ‘considerable percentage of the Spitfire effort was spent on escorting the medium bombers based on Corsican and Sardinian fields.’[12] However, on 6 June, No. 451 Squadron undertook two ‘armed reece’ operations from their base in Corsica over the Italian mainland. These consisted of 20 sorties.[13]

One unit, No. 458 Squadron, operated with MACAF on 6 June as part of No. 328 Wing RAF. The Squadron, equipped with the Vickers Wellington MkXIV, was assigned to the US 63^rd Fighter Wing. Alongside the rest of No. 328 Wing, No. 458 Squadron formed one part of the offensive element of the 63^rd Wing, undertaking anti-shipping operations from Sardinia and mainland Italy.[14]  Despite this, 6 June was quiet for No. 458 Squadron, as it was in the process of relocating its main operating base from Algeria to Alghero in Sardinia. Indeed, as John Herington remarked in the official history of RAAF air operations in Europe in 1944 and 1945, ‘[t]he month was a quiet one for No. 458 despite the momentous events in France and Italy.’[15] The squadron was ordered to move on 20 May, and its heavy equipment was loaded on 5 June; by 11 June, all aeroplanes had arrived at Alghero.[16] The road party of the squadron did not land on Sardinia until 20:00 hours on 6 June. Thus, elements of No. 458 Squadron spent most of that momentous day at sea.[17] Moreover, as recorded in the No. 458 Squadron Operation Record Book, the first operations from Alghero did not occur until the night of 13/14 June.[18]

Two RAAF squadrons, Nos. 454 and 459 operated under Air Headquarters Eastern Mediterranean, formed in February 1944 under Air Vice-Marshal Thomas Langford-Sainsbury. On 6 June, No. 454 Squadron was operating from RAF Berka in Libya and had been performing various roles, including bombing and anti-submarine operations. The squadron was equipped with the Martin Baltimore MkIV and V. Specifically, on 6 June, No. 454 Squadron flew three sorties providing anti-submarine cover for a convoy.[19] Due to visibility, one of the Baltimores struggled to locate the convoy. However, apart from that, there were no incidents on the day. The other squadron in AHQ Eastern Mediterranean was No. 459, equipped with the Lockheed Ventura MkV at RAF St Jean in Palestine. From here, it undertook bombing and anti-submarine operations in the eastern Mediterranean and Aegean. On 6 June, No. 459 Squadron undertook four sorties, including one aeroplane bombing seaplane installations in Rhodes harbour in the Aegean.[20] Interestingly, while No. 459 Squadron eventually replaced its Venturas with the Baltimore, the order of battle for 1 June in the relevant AHB Narrative for maritime air operations in the region suggests that the Squadron was to be replaced with the Vickers Warwick. Nonetheless, the eventual conversion of No. 459 Squadron to Baltimore’s implied a more aggressive role and was welcomed by the Squadron.[21]

These experiences were varied, reflecting the range and scope of operations undertaken by the RAAF as well as its geographical spread. They also differed from those of their RAAF counterparts in Northwest Europe, where operations were conducted under RAF command and control. In the Mediterranean, RAAF squadrons were deployed much more flexibly, as were RAF units, and often under US operational command, as illustrated by the experience of No. 451 Squadron. Finally, despite suggestions to the contrary, the Mediterranean was no backwater after the fall of Rome on 5 June, even on 6 June, when momentous events were unfolding elsewhere.

Dr Ross Mahoney is an independent scholar specialising in the history of war with particular reference to the use of air power and the history of air warfare. He is currently the Senior Historian within the Heritage Policy team at Brisbane City Council in Australia. He has nearly 20 years of experience in the education, museum and heritage sectors in Australia and the United Kingdom. Between 2013 and 2017, he was the inaugural Historian at the Royal Air Force Museum in the UK. In Australia, he has worked as a Historian for the Department of Veterans’ Affairs and taught at the Strategic and Defence Studies Centre at The Australian National University based at the Australian War College. His research interests are focused on the history of war, specifically on the history of air power and air warfare, military leadership and command, military culture, and the history and development of professional military education. He also maintains an interest in transport history. He has published numerous articles, chapters and encyclopedia entries, edited two books, and delivered papers on three continents. His website is here, and he can be found on Twitter at @airpowerhistory.

Header image: Nos. 3 and 450 Squadron RAAF moved from Cutella on the Adriatic to San Angelo on the west coast of Italy. It is springtime and warm enough to enjoy a swim in the river, c. 1944. (Source: Australian War Memorial)

[1] John Herington, Australia in the War of 1939–1945: Series 3 – Air, Volume IV – Air Power Over Europe, 1944–1945 (Canberra, ACT: Australian War Memorial, 1963), p. 329.

[2] Ibid.

[3] Ibid., p. 97.

[4] RAF Narrative, The Italian Campaign, 1943-1945, Volume II: Operations, June 1944-May 1945 (London: Air Historical Branch, 1956), p. 4.

[5] Ibid.

[6] National Archives of Australia (NAA) A9186, 9, Detail of Work Carried Out, No. 3 Squadron Operations Record Book, 6 June 1944.

[7] Ibid.

[8] NAA, A9186, 135, No 450 Operations Record Book, 6 June 1944.

[9] RAF Narrative, The Italian Campaign, 1943-1945, Volume II, p. 14.

[10] Ibid.

[11] Ibid.

[12] Ibid., p. 15.

[13] NAA, A9186, 136, Details of Work Carried Out, No. 451 Operations Record Book, 6 June 1944.

[14] RAF Narrative, The Italian Campaign, 1943-1945, Volume II, pp. 20-1.

[15] Herington, Air Power Over Europe, 1944–1945, p. 97.

[16] Ibid.

[17] NAA, A9186, 144, No. 458 Operations Record Book, June 1944.

[18] Ibid.

[19] NAA, A9186, 140, No. 454 Squadron Operations Record Book, 6 June 1944.

[20] NAA, A9186, 145, No. 459 Squadron Operations Record Book, 6 June 1944.

[21] Herington, Air Power Over Europe, 1944–1945, p. 323.